在台灣,音樂理論的研究並不興盛。我曾經仔細搜尋 Journal of Music Theory、Music Theory Online、Music Theory Spectrum 這三個有關音樂理論的國際學術期刊(有關音樂理論的前三名期刊),赫然發現,其中沒有任何臺灣學者所寫的論文。連一篇論文都找不到。
有一篇2020年的論文探討喜歡重金屬音樂的人是否不喜歡思考,該論文的前言提到,過去有研究發現,重金屬樂迷對於學業的興趣較低,不喜歡思考,也就是說,重金屬樂迷在認知需求(need for cognition, NFC)上得分較低。 NFC是一個衡量思考偏好的人格量表,NFC得分高的人可能喜歡燒腦的任務,如西洋棋。這篇2020年的研究召募了846名參與者,最終分析樣本包括628名參與者(平均年齡=23.64歲),結果發現,重金屬樂迷比鄉村、說唱/嘻哈、搖滾和流行音樂的樂迷更喜歡思考,在NFC方面得分更高。該論文的作者指出,隨著重金屬音樂從20世紀60年代末的硬搖滾發展到今日,其複雜性有明顯的提升。該論文的作者指出,儘管對重金屬樂迷的負面刻板印象仍然存在,但有證據顯示,聽重金屬音樂不僅與較高的NFC相關,還可以改善心情。
The Estradiol (雌二醇, 以下簡稱E) levels significantly increased in males with chill-inducing and disliked music. In females, the E levels increased with chill-inducing music but decreased with disliked music. Studies of the E levels are rare. We previously conducted the only study, to the best of our knowledge, to use the E levels as an indicator, where we investigated the effects of singing in a choir for 90 min in elderly female subjects (average age, 72.9 years) on hormone levels, rather than listening to music. The T (睾固酮) levels were also measured in that study, which showed that changes in the hormone levels depended on their baseline levels. Indeed, the hormone levels increased in the subjects with low baseline levels after musical activity, whereas the levels decreased in those with high baseline levels. We named this phenomenon the adjusting effect (Fukui and Toyoshima, 2011). In the present study, we did not find an adjusting effect. Thus, future studies should investigate whether the T and E levels are adjusted in response to listening to music in adolescent and late middle-aged subjects. 在男性聽到引起寒顫和不喜歡的音樂時,雌二醇(E)水平顯著增加。在女性中,聽到引起寒顫的音樂時E水平增加,但聽到不喜歡的音樂時則減少。關於E水平的研究很少。據我們所知,我們之前進行的研究是唯一一項使用E水平作為指標的研究,在這項研究中,我們調查了老年女性參與者(平均年齡72.9歲)合唱90分鐘對激素水平的影響,而不是聽音樂。該研究還測量了睾固酮(T)水平,結果顯示激素水平的變化取決於它們的基線水平。實際上,在音樂活動後,基線水平低的參與者的激素水平增加,而基線水平高的參與者的水平則減少。我們將這一現象命名為調節效應(Fukui & Toyoshima, 2011)。在目前的研究中,我們沒有發現調節效應。因此,未來的研究應該調查T和E水平是否會根據青少年和晚中年參與者聽音樂的反應進行調整。
2011年,我發表了一篇文章,描述了我的「泌乳素理論」,這是一個旨在解釋人們對名義上悲傷音樂的享受的推測性理論。該文章指出,泌乳素除了其他已知功能外,還是一種在壓力條件下釋放的肽類激素,尤其是在使人流淚的情況下。為了維持體內平衡,通常任何內源性化合物的釋放都會伴隨著一種抵消化合物的釋放,以使身體恢復平衡。在泌乳素的情況下,這種抵消化合物被認為是多巴胺,一種在體驗愉悅中也佔有重要地位的神經遞質。 在泌乳素理論中,我提出,當聆聽名義上悲傷的音樂時,聽眾會經歷一種感染性或共情性的壓力,引發泌乳素的釋放。雖然聽音樂可能會帶來壓力,但與其他壓力經歷不同的是,這對聽眾的福祉沒有真正的威脅,因此認知評估最終應該抑制任何與壓力相關的化合物的釋放。我提出的建議是,那些喜歡聽悲傷音樂的聽眾可能會因為多巴胺的過量釋放而受益,這是為了回應因認知識別音樂所暗示的無關緊要的壓力而被抑制的泌乳素水平而釋放的。相反,我提出,那些不喜歡聽悲傷音樂的聽眾可能會經歷與壓力相關的泌乳素釋放,而多巴胺的調節作用只是適度或中等(Huron, 2010; 2011)。 泌乳素理論中的具體主張很容易進行實證測試,在我的實驗室中,我們隨後通過測量聽眾聽到參與者選擇的快樂和悲傷音樂片段時的血清泌乳素濃度來測試這個理論。我們沒有發現泌乳素水平的變化,也沒有與報告的愉悅或享受相關的證據(Ladinig et al., 2019)。我們在2011年紐約羅徹斯特舉行的音樂感知會議上報告了這次測試的消極結果(Ladinig et al., 2011)。 除了我們自己的測試之外,Eerola及其同事(Eerola et al, 2021)對泌乳素理論進行了更廣泛的測試。他們檢查了更廣泛的激素範圍,並招募了表現出高低共情特質的參與者,他們報告說,沒有一個測試的壓力標記在各種條件或參與者群體中顯示出任何變化。與我們自己的研究一樣,Eerola等人的發現與我對悲傷音樂享受的泌乳素恆定理論不一致。 儘管有這些消極報告,我的2011年文章在心理學文獻中仍然經常被引用。事實上,在我發表的100多篇研究文章中,這篇文章是我被引用次數第三多的作品。儘管許多引用都早於實證失敗的發表,但該文章仍然經常被積極引用。 我鼓勵研究社群避免引用這篇文章,除非目的是要引起人們對其失敗狀態的注意。悲傷音樂享受的泌乳素理論是錯誤的。 David Huron
In 2011 I published an article describing my “Prolactin Theory," a speculative theory whose aim was to account for the enjoyment of nominally sad music. That article noted that, among other known functions, prolactin is a peptide hormone that is released under conditions of stress, especially in circumstances where a person is brought to tears. In order to maintain homeostasis, it is often the case that the release of any endogenous compound is accompanied by the release of a countervailing compound that returns the body to equilibrium. In the case of prolactin, that countervailing compound is known to be dopamine, a neurotransmitter that also figures prominently in the experience of pleasure. In the prolactin theory, I proposed that, when listening to nominally sad music, listeners would experience a form of contagious or empathetic stress, inducing a release of prolactin. Although music listening can be stressful, unlike other stressful experiences there is no true threat to the listener’s wellbeing and so cognitive appraisal ought to ultimately suppress the release of any stress-related compounds. My suggestion was that those listeners who enjoy listening to sad music might be the beneficiaries of an excess of dopamine, released in response to elevated prolactin that in turn is suppressed through cognitive recognition of the inconsequential stress suggested by the music. Conversely, I proposed that those listeners who dislike listening to sad music might experience a stress-related release of prolactin, with only a modest or moderate mediating effect from dopamine (Huron, 2010, 2011). The specific claims in the Prolactin Theory readily afford empirical testing, and in my lab we subsequently tested the theory by measuring serum concentrations of prolactin in volunteer listeners who heard participant-selected happy and sad musical passages. We found no evidence of changes in prolactin and no correlation with reported pleasure or enjoyment (Ladinig et. al., 2019). We reported the negative results of this test at the 2011 Society for Music Perception Conference in Rochester, New York (Ladinig et al., 2011). Independent of our own tests, a more extensive test of the prolactin theory was conducted by Eerola and colleagues (Eerola et al., 2021). Examining a wider range of hormones and recruiting participants exhibiting both high and low trait empathy, they reported that none of the stress markers tested showed any changes across the various conditions or participant groups. As with our own study, the Eerola et al. findings are not consistent with my homeostatic prolactin theory of sad-music enjoyment. Despite these negative reports, my 2011 article continues to be regularly cited in the psychological literature. Indeed, of the more than 100 research articles I have published, this article is my third most-cited work. Although many of these citations predate the publication of the empirical failures, the article continues to be cited favorably on a regular basis. I would encourage members of the research community to avoid citing this article unless the aim is to draw attention to its failed status. The Prolactin Theory of sad-music enjoyment is wrong.